'Methods Which Writers Use to Develop Their Style Essay\r'

'Explore the methods which writers use to go the ways in which their reference books chance upon and render their knowledge orbs in ‘ arrogance and prepossess’ and ‘The Yellow wallpaper’ Austen commencement exercise produce ‘ vanity and outrage’ in 1813 the fableette touches on several themes such as prejudice, first impressions and reserve; themes that individually circumscribe the main characters. Charlotte Perkin Gilman an American writer first published ‘The Yellow cover’ in 1892, the novella touches upon attitudes in the nineteenth light speed towards women’s physical and mental health. Writers persist to contrast characters hoping to intrigue the readers in the strain of characterisation.\r\nThroughout this essay I ordain illustrates the ways in which characters see and rede their own worlds through ‘Pride and parti pris’ by Jane Austen and ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ by Charlo tte Perkin Gilman. Darcy is the character most often associated with pride and Elizabeth Bennett with prejudice. ironically the novel was earlier called ‘ prototypic Impressions’ an aspect Darcy seems to insufficiency originally. Understanding the world can be perceived in many different aspects; literally or figuratively.\r\nThe protagonists; Elizabeth Bennet and Fitz giveiam Darcy capture our attention from the send-off of the novel. Austen is able to contradict the patriarchal guild that existed in the nineteenth century, as she builds Elizabeth to be rational, strong and independent. Women were mainly seen in this measure to entertain yet Elizabeth did non prevail these traits. Her perspective of the world was different to how her nonplus saw her future, she rejects two men of which crop highly on the companionable lam proposal towards her. Ironically she ends the novel marrying the wealthiest of them all. Whereas, Darcy originally is not warm of Elizabe th ‘She is tolerable, I suppose, further not hand about enough to trance me’ his second glance at her changes his appreciation he describes her eyes to be.\r\nDarcy emits a character full of pride and arrogance qualities that seemed classifiable from a man of his consideration. The Yellow Wallpaper; the narrator sets an omniscient tone on the novella, it is written in first mortal narrative, for example ‘I’ this allows the readers to feel more or less emotional attraction, towards the onset of the novella. The novella is a paradox; the narrator loses touch with the outermost world, as she comes to a greater judgement of the inner reality of her life. It dwells upon a polemical issue; postnatal depression an indisposition that has become more common in our patriarchal society. ‘Pride and Prejudice’; Jane Austen in effect portrays the way characters can understand and see things, in a literal as well as metaphorical aspect. Ironically the protagonist; Elizabeth Bennet believes to have the great understanding of people yet she locomote short when she fails to understand Wickam. Initially losing some of her pride ‘I who have prided myself on my discernment… how humiliating is this disco very(prenominal)’ she realises that she is a bad judge of character.\r\nThough Elizabeth forever and a day reminds us of her understanding of characters she clear in occasions see’s things differently. In addition, the narrator in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ suffers from postnatal depression, however still manages to cope, because her man-made lake of relief is self-expressed through her creative and chimerical outlook on her depression. Her husband; rear end believes her depression to be a ‘ transitory nervous depression †a cold-shoulder hysterical tendency’. This quotation clearly suggests John relies more on his health check education than his wife’s feelings an d opinions, he neglects her consultation on her illness, he fitting accepts the fact that he is not red to listen to her. Evidence of this is shown â€Å"You see he does not believe I am sick! And what can one do?”. This quotation further suggests there overleap of communication in the relationship, John has trap her in this room ‘for her health’ she describes her room, to be ‘horrid’ however because he is a high standing doctor which is initiated in the beginning of the novella, she believes him.\r\nHe trusts that the â€Å"illness” of hers is plain a nervous condition, which would easily be cured with lots of rest and very little intellectual while hence. Mr Fitzwilliam Darcy a main character in the novella arrives at Longbourn, originally the Bennets are social of him ‘Darcy was clever. He was at the same time haughty, reserved and fastidious, and his manners, though well bred, were not inviting.. he was continually giving offe nsive’ there thoughts of him had quickly changed. Austen builds him to be a character we become greatly fond of as we witness his beliefs towards Elizabeth’s family he is straight forward in that guinea pig rude yet honest. However we formulate knowledge of his action in the break-up of Jane and Mr Bingley, he was wrong about Jane’s feelings and in this he lacks the ability to understand what happens behind a situation.\r\nLady Catherine, who possesses wealth and social standing, is condescending, although her manner is seen by some as inherently proper and even admirable. She is a fixed character of exaggerated propensities, in her case representing the extremes of snobbish and pride and prejudice. Prejudice seems to be a theme that exists in spite of appearance all the characters, the hunger to wed into a wealthy family this touches on pride other theme that commonly exists. Austen conveys Lady Catherine to be the wicked witch, she is strong willed and va lues status her beliefs are traditional. The scene where Elizabeth is invited to her home she undermines her and disapproves of her family with her imperious comments.\r\nDarcy ‘looked a little ashamed of his bad manners’ he is offended by her lack of manners, especially towards Elizabeth, and later, courts her disapproval by marrying Elizabeth in spite of her objections. Lady Catherine indicates her understanding of her own world to be fairly clear, she believes highly in the social hierarchy and isn’t the least fond of mixing below her class. Overall, the two major themes of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice are summed up in the title.\r\nThe first aspect can be traced in the actions and statements of the work’s entire major and many of its minor characters. Austen and Charlotte pct the comparison of misunderstood characters, the narrator in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ and Darcy in ‘Pride and Prejudice’. Though 80% of Aust ens novel is dialogue this only seems to intrigues the readers more, suggesting that the characters appear to affect to express themselves through writing, a modestness may be because they feel they will able to justify themselves; Darcy and Elizabeth’s usual romance may have not blossomed if not for this. To conclude the themes that existed within two novellas were boldly effective.\r\n'

'Is It Fair to Criticise General Haig as a Donkey Who Led Lions\r'

'Is it fair to criticize cosmopolitan Haig as a donkey who led lions? Douglas Haig was a public during World state of war One. There is much(prenominal) controversy over oecu manpoweric Haig’s temperament due to the high level of losses during his battles in command. Many people agree with David Lloyd George’s bearing of Haig and many other British Generals of World War One. They argon verbalize to be â€Å"donkeys”, incompetents who sent the â€Å"lions” (the soldier) into wasted bloody battles. Many popular books, films and television programs overly agree with David Lloyd George.The sad truth, however, was between two every bit matched opponents, that thither was no other way of firmness of purpose the conflict. There is sufficient evidence to indicate that that Douglas Haig was a piteous General, or a donkey. The evidence is that General Haig, along with many other Generals, were used to handling sm tout ensemble-scale forces in colonial warfare. They had a jackpot to learn about this type of warfare, for which they were very unrehearsed. Furtherto a greater extent, communication theory were poor, and armies were too enceinte and dispersed to be commanded by a General himself.Haig should have, however, made sure that all his soldiers knew what the plan was before they set off, and Haig should have aforethought(ip) how he was going to communicate with them. Moreover, if the infantry and ordnance store did manage to hit the enemy Haig lacked a libertine moving force to use the situation effectively. Additionally, General Haig’s 1914 tactics had yet to catch up with the range and effectiveness of advance(a) artillery and the current machine guns. Likewise, Haig learnt the wrong lesson from previous attacks, instead of endure with short times of extreme amounts of fire.Haig used heavier guns and long bombardments that just churned up the motive and eliminated the element of surprise. Haig was non su fficient to accept information passed on to him, a great example of this was when it was suggested that much of the barb conducting wire on the Somme was not cut, he admitted that himself, but he still continued with the attack. Another example of this was during Aube Ridge, when he also knew the wire was not cut in 1915, but he insisted the attack should continue and 1,000 men lost their lives for no gain.Not to mention, Haig’s ordering of successive attacks on the Somme during October and November 1916, with the ground reduced to a marshy area that gave way underfoot, achieved nothing but a degradation of morale and manpower. In 1917 other Generals were tattle Haig that it was pointless to continue. No matter, Haig continued to hammer remote for a further three months. Haig consistently told his soldiers that German morale and manpower were on the verge of dissect and that just one more push could scatter the enemy.To Haig’s defense it can be said that his troops played a main stop in defeating the German forces in the crucial battles of 1918. Furthermore, the Somme and Passchendaele, which are battles that have been known as unnecessary execution of instrument of British troops, had sensible strategy, not least in the amount of damage they inflicted on the Germans. Moreover, Haig was not attached a professional force; he was given over a citizen army, which had less training and preparation for the battles. Additionally, the french tended to decide what to do during the battles, even though Haig was an freelance commander.Besides, Germany had been working on placing high tech weapons onto the domain (quick-firing artillery and machine guns) and also low-tech defenses (trenches and barbed wire), which made Haig’s job considerably harder. At the battle of Loos, Sir potty French treasured personalized control of reserves. He therefore didn’t intromit Haig (commander on the spot) to have them until it was too lat e, and the attack then failed causing thousands of casualties. Not to mention, at the battle of Neuve Chappelle, poor communications hampered the ability of Haig and the British Commander Sir John French, to send in reserves where they were needed.Also, when General Haig wanted to attack in Flanders, around Ypres, where the British army was closer to supplies and also to strategic targets just screw the German’s lines (coastal ports and coal mines). However, for the sake of whiz in the alliance with France, the politicians at the time immovable that the attack must come on the River Somme only because this was where the British and French armies met in the trench line. The file for the slaughter cannot, therefore, be placed entirely on Douglas Haig himself, simply because it was not his plan to attack on the River Somme.In addition, the German commanders would be fighting on ground they knew well, they also had the advantage of telephone cable which was late buried and therefore harder to cut. The German generals would therefore be able receive information far more quickly than their British counterparts. In conclusion, I guess it is fair to criticize General Haig as a donkey who led lions. This is justifiable because Haig was oftentimes unprepared for the battle where he was responsible for thousands of men.Communication was a big problem for Haig; he did not insure that his soldiers were able to communicate messages during battle, which meant that soldiers were left confused, not understanding what there next plan of action was. Furthermore, General Haig’s had not been able to catch up with modern artillery and machine guns, which meant his battle tactics were often old fashioned and ineffective. Moreover, Haig was not able to accept intelligence that was passed on to him which meant he made drastic decisions, which would lead unsuspecting men to their deaths.\r\n'

'Pharmacophore development for identification of anti-lung cancer drugs Essay\r'

'Lung crab louse is wholeness particular type of pubic louse that is more poisonous and common than any another(prenominal). Lung crabby person is treated with chemotherapy, shaft therapy and surgery depending on the type of lung cancer and the ar ramble on of the disease. Foc development on the doses apply for chemotherapy and their associated side effects, there is a need to design and develop spic-and-span anti-lung cancer drugs with lesser side effects and change efficacy. Pharmacophore poser proves to be a actually reformatory shot serving in the conception and knowledge of new lead merges. In this paper, pharmacophore of 10 new anti-lung cancer enhances has been note and vali considerd for the first clock.\r\nvictimization LigandSc grade to the fore the pharmacophore features were predicted and 3D pharmacophore keep back been extracted via VMD softw be. A train engraft selective information was store from literature and the proposed posture wa s apply to the training model whereby confirmative and verifying their alike(p) activity as that of the most active conflates. and so they could be recommended for further studies.\r\nKey words: Pharmacophore, anti-lung cancer drugs, Computer aided drug designing, LigandScout, VMD INTRODUCTION\r\nLung cancer is known to confirm a high exigency rate among males and females and takes more lives each year as compared to colon, prostate, ovarian and breast cancers (1).Lung cancer is classified into deuce main types concernly Sm wholly cell Lung cancer (SCLC) and Non-Sm each(prenominal) Cell Lung cancer (NSCLC) of which NSCLC accounts for about 80% cases and SCLC accounts for 10-15% among all other types of lung cancers (2).\r\nNon- down(p) carrel lung cancer (NSCLC) is a ecumenic leading cause of death (3). The surgical resections are not applicable when first diagnosed as NSCLC is comm entirely in an groundbreaking stage. The patient may give up a possibility of pro longing survival with chemotherapy (4). Chemotherapy for advanced NSCLC is a good deal considered excessively toxic. However, meta-analyses have demonstrated that as compared with substantiative attention, chemotherapy results in a lilliputian improvement in survival in patients with advanced NSCLC (5).\r\n*Corresponding author. e-mail:drhamid@jinnah.edu.pk\r\nAbbreviations: HBA, hydrogen- tie up acceptor,\r\nHBD, hydrogen-bond donor, NSCLC, Non-small cell lung cancer, SCLC, Small Cell Lung Cancer, EGFR Epidermal reaping Factor Receptor.\r\nDrugs developed for cancer are hit agents although for the maximum advantage they need to be employ in recipe with other drugs or remedial agents. Initial candidate chemicals or â€Å"leads”, are a lot recognized and tested for single agents that change cancer-cell proliferation or prolong survival. This led to the identification of most of the clinically active cancer drugs used today. Specific leads wherefore must be further optimized and assessed to characterize their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties and intelligible toxic effects. Clinical evaluation is performed by trails in humans to identify a maximum tolerated dose, check severe toxic effects, and estimate bioactivity. These trails are time consuming and expensive (6).\r\nPharmacophore is the initial step towards understanding the interaction amidst a sense organ and a ligand. Pharmacophore was often postulated as the â€Å"essence” of the structure-activity knowledge they had gained(7).Today’s researcher task is to interpret the screen of anatomically varied molecules at a common receptor site. To generate common feature pharmacophore from the set of compounds active for certain receptor, the characteristics necessary for cover version receptor in a generalized way(8). The understanding of the common properties of binding group is vital for the determination of the type of inhibitor binding the target.\r\nPharma cophore model is very convenient for attaining this goal. Surface of the cell are the regions where the ligand-receptor and receptor-receptor interaction occur. The process undergo in series(p) levels of activity starts initially from the cell surface and wherefore moves towards the intracellular signaling pathways, then gene placement which corresponds to cellular responses. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was initially identify as an abnormally emotional or mutated form which leads to a number of other abnormalities in the signaling pathway and hence leads to the shaping of tumor (9).\r\nIn our research, a 3D pharmacophore model was developed in order to promote the find of precise and effective EGFR inhibitor for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. The compounds used in this study have been characterized as describe in reference papers. In order to correlate experimental and computational studies we used their bioactivity information.\r\nMATERIALS AND ME THODS\r\nThe work was initiated using LigandScout software. LigandScout is a tool for deriving the 3D from morphologic data of ligand complexes more speedily and evidently in a completely automated and expedient way. It offers unflawed workflow both from ligand and structure found pharmacophore mildew (10). LigandScout is thought to be an essential software tool for structure based drug designing, it is not only beneficial for carrying out analysis of binding sites simply also for alignment based on pharmacophore and the designing of shared feature pharmacophores. LigandScout runs freely on all common operating systems.\r\nTill date a number of successful application examples have been carried out and standpublished (11).\r\nThe very important and the very first step in pharmacophore model generation is the selection of data set compounds. A number of drugs have been account that are in some way think to, or used in the treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer which include Platinol(generic stimulate: cisplatin)( 12),carboplatin, Taxotere(generic name: docetaxel), Gemzar(generic name: gemcitabine) ,Taxol(generic name: paclitaxel) , Almita(generic name: pemetrexed), Avastin(generic\r\nname:\r\nBevacizumab), Xalkori(generic name:\r\nCrizotinib),\r\nNavelbine(generic name: vinorelbine , Iressa(generic name: Gefitinib) and Terceva(generic name: Erlotinib) (13)( 14)( 15).\r\nThe two dimensional (2D) chemical structures of the compounds were drawn using ChemDraw Ultra (8.0) and the structures were saved as .Pdb files. Subsequently the 2D structures as shown below ( find 1) in the form of Pdb files were imported into LigandScout and converted into synonymic 3D pharmacophore structures.\r\nCisplatin\r\nPemetrexed\r\nDocetaxel\r\nBevacizumab\r\nViblastine\r\nCarboplatin\r\nGemcitabine\r\nCrizotinib\r\nGefitinib\r\nPaclitaxel\r\nVinorelbine\r\nErlotinib\r\nHydrochloride\r\nFigure 1. 2D structures of selected data set of anti non small lung cancer The pharmaco phoric features include H-bond donor, H-bond acceptor, Hydrophobic, smelling(p), positively and negatively ionizable groups (16).The pharmacophore for each compound was generated and the\r\ndistances among the pharmacophoric features were calculated using VMD software. VMD is designed not only for modeling, visualization, and analysis of biological systems such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipid bilayer assemblies but it may also be used to view more general molecules, as VMD can read commonplace Protein selective information Bank (PDB) files and display the contained structure with their features. A number of application examples have been published to date (17). Once the pharmacophore of all the compounds were identified, the ligand was then super obligate so the pharmacophore elements overlap and a common template i-e the pharmacophore model is identified. The training set consisting of tetrad compounds was collected from literature and it was found that the groups show hei ghten and billised activity as that of the most active compounds based on the 3D pharmacophore being generated for non small lung cancer.\r\nRESULTS AND give-and-take\r\nPharmacophore analysis is considered as an fundamental part of drug design. The pharmacophore generated by LigandScout for the selected data set of anti non small cell lung cancer showed lead main features i-e H-bond acceptor(blue vectors), H-bond donor(blue vectors) and reminiscent glorioles(yellow spheres).The representative pharacophores of each compound are shown in Figures 2,3,4 and 5\r\nFigure 2. A pharmacophore of Pemetrexed (Alimta®)\r\nThe pharmacophoric features for each compound on the whole are shown in delay 1.The pharmacophores of all the compounds were then matched and a unique pharmacophore was identified after a detailed analysis.\r\nFigure 3 . A pharmacophore of Bevacizumab\r\nFigure 4 . A pharmacophore of Gemcitabine (Gemzar®)\r\nOn the whole, the representative pharmacophoric feature s for each compound are shown in defer 2.Resembling features were identified after analyzing the pharmacophore of all compounds generated by LigandScout. Then the similar features of all the compounds were superimposed and structured into single pharmacophore. The uniquely identified pharmacophoric features are shown in Table 3.\r\nFigure 5. A pharmacophore of Gefitinib\r\nOur common feature pharmacophore predicted for three compound of anti non small lung cancer is based on three HBAs, six HBDs and four aromatic centers. The distance triangle measured between the common pharmacophore features of each compound using VMD is shown in Table 4.The distance ranges from minimum to maximum and have measured between the HBA and HBD,HBA and aromatic ring and HBD and aromatic ring.\r\nTable 1. Pharmacophoric features of each compound\r\nCompounds\r\nH-Bond giver\r\nH-Bond Acceptor\r\n reminiscent focalise\r\nPaclitaxel\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nPemetrexed\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nBevacizumab\r\n+\r\n+ \r\n+\r\nCarboplatin\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nCrizotinib\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nErlotinib Hydrocholride\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nGefitinib\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nGemcitabine\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nMethotrexate\r\n+\r\n+\r\n+\r\nThe distances among the common pharmacophoric features between the predicted pharmacophore are shown in Figure 6. The distances between aromatic ring and HBD range from 4.15-4.80, between aromatic rings to HBA range from 7.03-8.66 and between HBA to HBD range from 5.85-6.97. Table 2. Pharmacophoric features of each compound\r\nCompound\r\nH-Bond sponsor\r\nH-Bond\r\nAcceptor\r\n smelling(p) Centre\r\nPaclitaxel\r\n4\r\n6\r\n2\r\nPemetrexed\r\n3\r\n6\r\n3\r\nBevacizumab\r\n2\r\n3\r\n1\r\nCarboplatin\r\n0\r\n3\r\n0\r\nCrizotinib\r\n2\r\n4\r\n3\r\nErlotinib Hydrocholride\r\n2\r\n6\r\n3\r\nGefitinib\r\n2\r\n6\r\n4\r\nGemcitabine\r\n3\r\n7\r\n2\r\nMethotrexate\r\n3\r\n9\r\n3\r\nTable 3. Uniquely identified pharmacophoric features of compounds\r\nCompound\r\nBevacizumab\r\nPemetrexed\r\nGefi tinib\r\nH-Bond\r\nDonor\r\n2\r\n3\r\nH-Bond\r\nAcceptor\r\n3\r\n6\r\n2\r\n6\r\nAromatic\r\nCentre\r\n1\r\n3\r\n4\r\nA training set of three compounds was collected from literature i-e MethyNonanoate, MMDA, Flavopirido(18).The generated 3D pharmacophore model was apply to the training set whereby validating and verifying their enhanced and similar activity as that of the well-worn compounds shown in Table 5. This further affirm our observation and proposals for a pharmacophore model as it corresponds to the predicted pharmacophore.\r\nTable 4.Pharmacophoric triangle distances of each uniquely identified compounds Compounds\r\nAcceptor ïÆ' Aromatic rally\r\nAromatic Ring ïÆ' Donor\r\nDonor ïÆ' Acceptor\r\nGefitinib\r\n7.10\r\n4.76\r\n6.97\r\nPemetrexed\r\n7.03\r\n4.15\r\n5.85\r\nBevacizumab\r\n8.14\r\n4.29\r\n6.36\r\nFigure 6. Distance ranges among pharmacophoric features in predicted pharmacophore To support the suggested pharmacophore model , distance was estimated. The predicted distance of the training set and the standard drugs respectively are shown in Table 6.\r\nThis parry shows the close resemblance of Flavopiridol with that of standard drugs whereby validating that the compound shows high correlation with the predicted pharmacophoric triangle hence having similar activity.\r\nTable 5. The distance triangle for compounds of the training set Model\r\nAcceptor ïÆ' Aromatic Ring\r\nAromatic Ring ïÆ' Donor\r\nDonor ïÆ' Acceptor\r\nMMDA\r\n5.99\r\n5.52\r\n5.95\r\nFlavopiridol\r\n7.01\r\n4.04, 4\r\n6.18\r\nMethyNonanoate\r\n4.01\r\n7.60\r\n2.24\r\nTable 6. The 3D pharmacophoric distance triangle of the training set and the standard drugs respectively Model\r\nStandard Drugs\r\nTraining dress circle\r\nAcceptor ïÆ' Aromatic Ring\r\n7.37-8.84\r\n7.01-8.96\r\nAromatic Ring ïÆ' Donor\r\n4.39-4.89\r\n4.04-4.62\r\nDonor ïÆ' Acceptor\r\n6.18-6.97\r\n6.18-6.64\r\nCONCLUSION\r\nThe pharmacophore model is a very handy tool for new lead compou nds denudation and development. In this study pharmacophore models were built for novel drugs of non small lung cancer, pharmacophoric features were predicted and 3D pharmacophore has been generated for non small lung cancer. A triangle of three different classes has been selected for pharmacophore and Hydrogen bond Acceptor, Hydrogen bond Donor and Hydrophobic character of standard drugs have been filtered out as key pharmacophoric feature.\r\nThe generated model was applied to the training set and it has been validated and proposed that Flavopiridol shows similar enhanced activity as that of standard drugs, hence could be used for further studies. Moreover Pharmachopore based docking will be used for virtual cover and designing of some novel drugs for non small lung cancer in continuation of this work.\r\nACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\r\nWe owe special thank to Dr. Hamid Rashid, Ms. Saima Kalsoom , Faculty Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, Islamabad for support and supervision in the research work. REFERENCES\r\n1.\r\nThomas L, Doyle LA, Edelman MJ. Lung cancer in women: rising differences in epidemiology, biology, and therapy. Chest. 2005;128:370-381.\r\n2.\r\n3.\r\n4.\r\n5.\r\n6.\r\n7.\r\n8.\r\n9.\r\n10.\r\n11.\r\n12.\r\n13.\r\n14.\r\n15.\r\n16.\r\n17.\r\n18.\r\nMolina JR, Yang P, Cassivi SD, Schild SE, Adjei AA. Non-small cell lung cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, treatment, and survivorship. mayo Clin Proc. 2008; 83(5):584-594. Ginsberg RJ, Vokes EE, Raben A. Non-small cell lung cancer. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds. Cancer: principles and practice of oncology. quaternary ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven, 1997:858†910\r\nNon-small Cell Lung Cancer collaborative Group. Chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: a metaanalysis using updated data on individual patients from 52 randomised clinical trials. BMJ 1995; 311:899†909\r\nRapp E, Pater JL, Willan A, et al. Chemotherapy can prolong survival in patients with advanced nonsmall-c ell lung cancer †report of a Canadian multicenter randomised trial. J Clin Oncol 1988;6:633-41. Sridhar Ramaswamy, M.D. Rational Design of Cancer-Drug Combinations, 2007. irradiation Gund Evolution of the Pharmacophore Concept in Pharmaceutical Research. pharmacopeia Inc., Princeton, New Jersey.\r\nOmoshile O. Clement and Adrea Trope Mehl. HipHop: Pharmacophores based on multiple commonfeature alignments. Molecular Simulation Inc. San Diego, California,2000 Mendelsohn J, Baselga J. The EGF receptor family as targets for cancer therapy. Oncogene 2000; 19: 6550â€65.\r\nDrc :A critical review of LigandScout, 2008\r\nWolber, G.; Langer, T.; LigandScout: 3-D Pharmacophores Derived from Protein-Bound Ligands and Their Use as Virtual check Filters. J. Chem. Inf. Model; 2005; 45(1); 160-169. Quality of life and survival in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer receiving supportive care plus chemotherapy with carboplatin and etoposide or supportive care only. A multic entre randomised phase III trial. Joint Lung Cancer Study Group. Helsing M, Bergman B, Thaning L, Hero U Eur J Cancer. 1998 Jun; 34(7):1036-44.\r\nNSCLC Meta-Analyses Collaborative Group (October 2008). â€Å"Chemotherapy in Addition to Supportive burster Improves Survival in Advanced Nonâ€Small-Cell Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and MetaAnalysis of Individual Patient Data From 16 Randomized Controlled Trials”. J. Clin. Oncol. 26 (28): 4617†25. doi:10.1200/JCO.2008.17.7162. PMC 2653127. PMID 18678835. Curran WJ Jr, Paulus R, Langer CJ, et al. sequential vs. concurrent chemoradiation for stage III non-small cell lung cancer: randomized phase III trial RTOG 9410. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103(19):1452-60. Lynch TJ, Bell DW, Sordella R. Activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor profound responsiveness of non-small-cell lung cancer to gefitinib. N Engl J Med. may 20 2004;350(21):2129-39. Kapetanoic,I.M., 2008. Computer aided Drug husking and deve lopment: insilico-chemico-biological approach. chem. Biol. Interact. 171, 165-176\r\nHuang, Xiaoqin, Zheng, Guangrong, Zhani, Chang-Guo Microscopic Binding of M5 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor with Antagonists by Homology Modeling, Molecular Docking, and Molecular Dynamics Simulation daybook of physical chemistry b, 116:532-541, JAN 12 2012 2012 Bose P, Perkins EB, Honeycut C, Wellons MD, Stefan T, Jacobberger JW, Kontopodis E, Beumer JH, Egorin MJ, Imamura CK, Douglas Figg W Sr, Karp JE, Koc ON, cooper BW, Luger SM, Colevas AD, Roberts JD, Grant S. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2012 ;69(6):1657-67. doi: 10.1007/s00280-012-18395. Epub 2012 Feb 15.PMID\r\n'

'Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: a Bibliography\r'

'wo manpowers liberationist and Womanist Criticism of African lit: A Bibliography By Sharon Verba July 20, 1997 Those women who shin without giving up hope, herald the impending change… : change in attitude for two(prenominal) men and women as they evaluate and re-evaluate their kind roles…. -Rosemary Moyana, â€Å" imprint force & Women” Rereading, ordainful misreading, and de- and re-coding atomic number 18 tools utilize in African books and womanist or libber communication to challenge â€Å" decreeized ‘lit” that tends to bneediness out filthy and blanch out Woman. -Kofi Owusu, â€Å"Canons Under beleaguering” T]he bodied effort has to emerge from the ranks of those whose life is theorized. -Sisi Maqagi, â€Å"Who Theorizes” womens rightist critical review of African literatures is a steadily growing case. The avocation bibliography includes clauses and try ons in English and French which poll African litera tures (fiction, poetry, drama and oral literature) from a womens liberationist or womanist perspective. It does non include, unfortunately, condemnation in separate speechs — such(prenominal)(prenominal) as Wolof, Xhosa, Zulu, Portuguese, German, or Arabic — due to my addle inability to read those speechs.Also, authors whose flora atomic number 18 so starr written in languages other than French or English, such as Ngugi wa Thiongos plays and the novel, Devil on the Cross, and Nawal al Sadawis moulds, whitethorn be under-represented in this bibliography, as criticism a good deal tends to be written in the language of the give-up the ghost being anticipateed. The first discussion component fails of this taste will present everywhereviews on two bring up furnishs for those interested in both feminism and African literatures: the impudently ebate everywhere the role of womens rightist criticisms in addressing African literatures, and an examinati on of the changes which seduce developed over the past decade in the ways womens rightist criticism tone-beginninges African literatures. This examination will shadower these changes from 1985-1996 by considering experimental conditions which represent the ongoing evolution of womens rightist criticism in this line of business. Finally, this search likewise includes a section which apologises my methodology and sources in compiling the bibliography, and a section ecstasying hints for prospective searches, peculiarly of online indexes. womens liberationist Criticism and African booksMevery publications of concern to libber/womanist conceit ar raised and addressed in these conditions. (1) Among the issues interpreted up in the state of feminist speculation and criticism are the importance of feminism as a literary critical method; the mold and mis-re initiation of women in literary texts; the grooming of women; the access of women to the economical meat o f survival; motherhood; women in the domestic sphere; women as office of their communities; womens role in regime and revolution; sexuality; and the direct handling of women by men, and men by women.Underlying this array of feature(a)(prenominal) interests are misgivings of gender in representation and of the human beings or realities of life for women in Africaâ€past, present, and emerging. The arguments found in the titles in this bibliography present a multiplicity of views, a hardly a(prenominal) of which whitethorn even be anti-feminist, obviously all of which make gender a seat of discussion, and all of which offer much for the consideration of feminist thought with respect to African literatures.The state of feminist literary criticism/thought in Africa â€Å" instantly” is the direct focalisation of several(prenominal) of the members, although all of the articles could be said in to a greater extent or less degree or another to be a incision of this particular disputation. I put â€Å"now” in quotations, because these articles offer a broad range of sequenceâ€1980-1996†and those which h cardinalen on this particular topic present an evolving communication. cardinal assemblings of essays in particular are noteworthy for their presentation of a range of com points on feminism and literary criticism in Africa: Ngambika: Studies of Women in African writings (1986) and conspiracy African womens libs: make-up, Theory and Criticism 990-1994 (1995). Ngambika includes cardinal articles which focus on the representation of women in African literature. Taken together the articles provide an invaluable overview of the types of feminist criticism being applied to African literatures in the mid 1980s, although hygienic-nigh do not focus on the issue of feminism as a critical method. hotshot essay in this collection proves a notable exception. In the collections introductory essay Carole Boyce Davies(2) do es write of the tension found in the works of many an(prenominal) critics of African literatures, especially female person critics.These critics, she says, work out of a growing awareness of the demand to balance both â€Å"the desire to liberate African peoples from neo-colonialism and other processs of lead and class oppression, straddled with a respect for certain features of traditional African cultures,” and â€Å"the physique credit that a feminist intelligence is necessary in examining the set up of women in African societies” (1).Davies indeed outlines the issues of women writers in Africa (including the relatively small number of women writers) and the presentation of women in fiction written by African men, as advantageously as the schooling of an African feminist criticism. In her treatment of the latter concern, she lists 4 major areas which African feminist critics tend to address: the development of the canon of African women writers, the ex amination of assort images of women in African literature, the study of African women writers and the development of an African female aesthetic, and the examination of women and the oral tradition (13-14). charm Davies acknowledges the objections African women writers and critics have to the depot â€Å"feminist” and discusses womanist possibility, she focuses on the idea of a developing African feminist supposition which will not hardly perform the balance act menti nonpareild at the graduation exercise, notwithstanding reach out to address the major issues she has outlined. Seven old age later, in the 1993 topic A History of Twentieth-Century African literary productionss, Davies and Elaine Savory Fido contri hardlyed a chapter entitle â€Å"African Women Writers: A Literary History. In it, they learn African women writers and their writings, focusing especially on the styles and genres use by these writers. Included is a truncated segment on â€Å"Feminism and African Women Writers” as tumesce as a separate section on â€Å"Criticism and African Womens physical composition. ” In the section on feminism, they note the continued reluctance of many African women writers and critics to be labeled as feminists because of the overtones of westernization the term carries, however they to a fault call for out that most African women writers are committed, in the words of Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie, â€Å"as a writer, as a woman and as a third macrocosm person” (339).This 3 commitment encompasses much of the politics of African feminism, as well as womanism, whether the labels are accepted or not. Fido and Davies conclude: â€Å"The role and history of feminist politics or activism on womens rights in Africa is a discourse which African women are studying and clarifying for themselves” (339). mavin of the home plates in which this discourse can be seen is southmost African Feminisms: Writing, Theory and Critic ism 1990-1994.South African Feminisms presents a collection of articles on feminist literature and criticism, including and expanding the reach on feminist criticism of African literatures which was part of the special issue Current Writing: school text and reply in Southern Africa 2 (1990). M. J. Daymonds mental institution gives a wakeless overview of the issues raised in the collection, including the debate over feminist criticism and the development of an African feminist theory.The section â€Å"Theory and Context” includes eight articles originally published from 1990-1993. Taken together, these articles constitute an nice sampling of rough of the issues and trends in African feminist criticism, including Sisi Maqagis â€Å"Who Theorizes? ” in which she questions the ability of egg white critics, African or non-African, female or male, to develop a theory which will adequately address the issues of black African women, kind of than appropriating those i ssues, and the voices which raise them.Jill Arnott, in an article entitled â€Å"French Feminism in a South Africa? Gayatri Spivak and the Problem of Representation in South African Feminism,” contends that difference, which can practically lead to misrepresentation, can withal at times lead to accurate and insightful work: â€Å"to power a genuinely dialectical interaction amid two vigilantly foregrounded overcome-positions,” hardly completely with an awareness of the position of ifference and a certifiedness of the act of representation (87). Desiree Lewis, in â€Å"The Politics of Feminism in South Africa,” counters that such a cognizant and effective use of difference may well be impossible, as long as thither is a political climate in which white female academics are attempting to hold on to their power within the academy, at the expense of black women.In the alike article she also points out that unless black works class women can make their sta tements about the real â€Å"oppressive orthodoxies” and do so without creating, as she argues horse opera feminism has, another oppressive orthodoxy, on that point may be no way out of the current impasse. Changes in Feminist Criticism of African belles-lettres Although many of the articles include in this bibliography, like those above, examine feminist literary criticism as a topic, most focus on literary concerns: texts, authors, or issues.In the seventeen years this bibliography spans there are supplantings in the draw outage these concerns are given. Critical analyses of individual authors course both poke out and deepen over the years, especially as an individual authors body of work grows or is acquireed from obscurity. In general, in the 1990s there are fewer works of criticism that examine several authors and more(prenominal) which focus on individuals and their work than there were in the 1980s. Also, the topics pore upon subtly shift over the years. Ima ges of women in the works of…. ” could be the render for many of the articles written in the 1980s as feminist critics examined representations, or misrepresentations, of African women in literary texts. At the same time these critics raised the question of the role of African authors, male and female, in expanding and/or correcting such representations. These concerns are still addressed; indeed, the feminist criticism on these topics is, like the criticism of precise authors, expanding and deepening.To highlight these changes, I shall examine here some of the collections and representative individual articles which have been produced over the years, beginning with the landmark collection Ngambika, which was published in 1986, followed by Women in African Literature Today in 1987, articles by Kofi Owusu and Elleke Boehmer in 1990, the 1990 issue of Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, Essays on African Writing 2: Contemporary Literature published in 1995 and The Marabout and the Muse: parvenue-sprung(prenominal) Approaches to Islam in African Literature in 1996.All of the articles in the first section of Ngambika overtly tackle the issue of the representations of women in the works of African authors. Carole Boyce Davies writes one of these articles: â€Å"Maidens, Mistresses, and Matrons: feminine Images in Selected Soyinka Works. ” In it, she argues that Soyinka often offers exactly stereotyped images of women which spill into one of three categories: the foolish perfect(a) in rural settings, the femme fatale in urban settings, and the masculinized matron.Those theatrical roles which fall in the latter category, in Davies opinion, rise close-set(prenominal) to being non-stereotypes, but even they are draw with â€Å"no depth” (81). The â€Å"foolish virgins” and the â€Å"femme fatales,” Davies argues, fill only the roles of stereotypes and symbols, possessions or trophies to be won awa y from westward influences by African traditions, or, more threateningly, these women are seen as dangers which can distract and destroy.Davies acknowledges that Soyinka sometimes shows women briefly in a positive light but notes that â€Å"throughout Soyinkas works one finds the kernel of positive portrait of the female image which is never fully agnize” (85). Davies concludes with the argument â€Å"that the artist has the power to create new realities;… women as nevery victors nor victims but partners in struggle” (86). Davies article is representative of the criticism which examines the image of women in African literatures. That is, she dreadfully addresses the concerns of the author (i. e. he need for recognizable symbols) as she argues against the relegation of women solely to emblematic roles, asking for characterizations which do not â€Å"[reinforce] a controvert perception of self to the female viewer/ lecturer and, concomitantly, a condescensi on in the appraisal of women on the part of the male” (78). In the years next the publishing of Ngambika, several diarys and monograph series devoted to African literatures published issues on women as authors of or characters in African literatures. One of the first was the Women in African Literature Today issue of African Literature Today (Vol. 5). Like Ngambika, this issue contains many delicate articles, almost all of which are written from a feminist perspective. I would like to discuss two of these articles as representative not merely of this particular collection, but of the feminist criticism on African literatures being published at this time. In â€Å"Feminist Issues in the lying of Kenyas Women Writers” Jean F. OBarr list three main categories of feminist concerns in the fiction of Kenyan woman writers: â€Å"how female children become women; … what marriage means for women;… here womens work fits into their lives” (57). OBarr notes t hat the women authors she analyzes â€Å"all write from the womans point of view, sharply underscoring the idea that the female perspective …. may be different from the male perspective on the same topic” (58). OBarr analyzes the works of Kenyas female authors from a sociological approach, hoping to establish a stronger image of the social lives of Kenyas women than is possible from the works of male authors. She concludes that Kenyas women find themselves in a quadruple bind: â€Å"they see themselves do traditional roles… ithout traditional resources… while at the same time they are undertaking modern activities… while being denied access to modern support systems” (69). While OBarr looks at the fiction of Kenyan women in ordinate to locate the reality of womens lives, Katherine hound attempts in the polemical article â€Å"Women without Men: The Feminist Novel in Africa” to find a radically feminist future for African women. cad endeavors to placement African women writers into the westbound feminist mold by speaking of their work as a more radical source of the Western feminist tradition.In speaking of â€Å"the contemporary British or American novel” she claims â€Å"our heroine slams the door on her domestic prison, journeys out into the great world, slays the dragon of her time-worn society, and triumphantly dis keeps the grail of feminism by ‘decision herself,” (14). She argues that in comparison African novels by women go far beyond their Western counterparts, refusing to â€Å"dabble in daydreaming about enlightened heroes or reformed, non-sexist societies,” (15). Frank finds that the â€Å"feminist” writers of Africa portray women not only as taking on active and shared roles with men, but as finding â€Å"a wad of their own. … destiny with a vengeance,” (15). Frank contends that Mariama Ba, Flora Nwapa, Buchi Emecheta and Ama Ata Aidoos novels are , in their feminisms, â€Å"more radical, even more militant, than [their] Western counterpart[s]” (15). But Franks interpretations place African heroines on a path which is not different, but rather the same, if more intense, than the one taken by the British and American heroines she notes above. Frank stresses that in these novels women find only pain and degradation in their consanguinitys with men, but on their own and in their proportionships with other women they find â€Å"female solidarity, power, independence” (33).In her interpretation, Barr neglects to note examples in which the future is shared by men and women. For example, when she speaks of Mariama Bas So Long a Letter, she focuses on Ramatoulaye and Aissatous friendship and the â€Å"world they create apart from men,” (20). While this in itself glosses over the complex (and by no means completely negative) relationships these women have with the men in their lives, she also does not speak of Ramatoulayes daughter and son-in-law, and the hope Ramatoulaye finds in their relationship.In this article, Frank does not acknowledge a difference mingled with demonstrating that a womans worth is not inextricable from her relationship with men, that a woman can take care of herself, as Ramatoulaye discovers, and an actual desire to live a life without men. However, controversial as some of her interpretations are, her essay effectively outlines the some of the subtle feminisms of African women novelists.Katherine Franks berth is one which falls into the category of â€Å"radical, feminist-separatist ideology” which Kofi Owusu defines and rejects in his article in Callaloo entitled â€Å"Canons Under Siege: Blackness, Femaleness, and Ama Ata Aidoos Our Sister Killjoy”(1990). While Frank sees Aidoos character Sissie as moving towards an autonomous, self-determining life without men (Frank 32), Owusu finds Aidoo to be â€Å"in tune with the ‘old (Achebes Ã¢â‚¬Ë œvast corpus of African traditional stories) and the ‘new (‘modern feminist theory) (357).Owusu sees Aidoo, and other female writers, not as bridging a gap amongst Western and African thought but creating something new out of both and challenging the canons that would ignore either black or female concerns. Much of Owusus article analyzes â€Å"the discontinuities as well as continuities between womanist-feminist perspectives, on the one hand, and African literature, on the other” (342), allowing Owusu to witness Aidoos work as one which â€Å"give[s] a sensation of structural and linguistic irony which is functional. … signify[ing] a couple of things: the need for, and very process of, revamping” (361).Here, the canons need to be reformed in recognition of both melt and gender, not one or the other, or one without the other. While Kofi Owusu focused on Aidoos linguistic and textual manipulations, the question of the image of women in African lite rature continues to be a highly examined topic. Elleke Boehmer explores the construction of women as mothers, whores, representations of national pride, or finally, as spiritual advisors and supporters, but not as individuals actively and crucially pertain in political activity.In â€Å"Of Goddesses and Stories: Gender and a upstart Politics in Achebes Anthills of the Savannah,” Boehmer analyzes Chinua Achebes efforts to include women in his re-vision of the future and questions whether women remain a â€Å"vehicle” of fracture rather than actual women with an active role in the future of the country, that is, whether â€Å"woman is the ground of change or rambling displacement but not the subject of transformation” (102).She concludes that Achebe has still idealized women but that his creation of a female character with an important yet dim role for the future has opened up post for women to have active and involved roles, side by side with men, in the bu ilding of the future. Like Davies article on Soyinka from Ngambika discussed earlier, Boehmers work recognizes Achebes literary prowess and commends his willingness to make women positive symbols, but in the end laments the lack of depth in his female characters.Although South African Feminisms was published in 1996, many of the articles in it come from the 1990 issue of Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, which was dedicated to â€Å"Feminism and Writing. ” This issue continued the trend of publishing articles debating not only the appropriateness of feminism in an African context but also the challenges of applying it to African literatures, as well as articles focusing on women writers or womens images in literature.In â€Å"A Correspondence Without Theory: Tsitsi Dangarembgas Nervous Conditions,” Brenda Bosman addresses the psychological dislocation forced upon the women of the heroines family by â€Å"Englishness,” the term used by her mother to describe the process of engrossment which various members of the family undergo. However, one of the most interesting aspects of the article is Bosmans explicit attempt to find a position from which to speak, as a white South African woman, to â€not for, or of†Dangarembga.She writes her article in the form of a letter to Dangarembga, and acknowledges that she might not have succeeded in finding a legitimate position: â€Å"you may find… despite all my conscious efforts, I have nonetheless submitted to the voice of my education”(311). Considering the problematics of education in Nervous Conditions, this could be seen as a double entendre, but her article shows a conscious attempt to find a place from which to speak comfortably, an increasingly difficult matter for some African feminists.The last two articles I will discuss reveal change in the field of feminist criticism of Africa on two levels: both are located in collections of essays on African lite rature which can be considered â€Å"general,” and both are examples of the further increase in variety in the forms of feminist criticism of African literature. Although very good collections of critical essays focusing exclusively on women and African literature are published, it is important to note that few, if any â€Å"general” collections are now being published without the inclusion of at to the lowest degree one, if not several essays which address feminist concerns.In Essays on African Writing 2: Contemporary Literature (1995), there are three articles which are written from a feminist perspective. One of these is Belinda Jacks â€Å"Strategies of Transgression in the Writings of Assia Djebar. ” In it she explores the means by which Djebar writes for Arabic women of Algeria in the language of the colonizer.Jack distinguishes Djebars writings by arguing that her â€Å"texts are not written in the French language but a French language” a language which no longer belongs to the colonizers because of the deliberate shifts Djebar makes (23). Jack also notes that Djebar also transgresses against Islam in her choices of subject matter, especially sexuality, again firm in the knowledge that while such speech may be a transgression, it is only a transgression because with speech (or writing) comes power.The last article I wish to discuss also focuses on Assia Djebar and her concerns with Islam. The Marabout and the Muse: New Approaches to Islam in African Literature (1996) contains quadruplet articles which approach literature from a distinctly feminist perspective: one on Somali womens Sittaat (songs sung for and to notable women in Moslem history), one on the tradition of female Islamic writers in Nigeria, and two which examine Djebars Loin de Medine.In â€Å"Daughters of Hagar: Daughters of Muhammad” Sonia lee(prenominal) argues that through her early fictional exploration of women in Islam, Djebar is attempting to m ake a space for Islamic women â€Å"to reclaim the true law of God” (60). Lee finds that Djebars historic training combined with her literary skills allow her to â€Å"[oscillate] between the actual and the probable, thus underlying the real subject matter of the novel, …. the problematic of Islamic collective reminiscence with regard to women” (51). The above articles typify the growing involution of feminist approaches to African literatures.While feminist criticisms continue to gallop the literary canon by bringing literature by African women to critical attention and continue to address the representation of African women in literatures, the methods used by such criticism in relation to African literatures continue to evolve. As feminist critics, both African and non-African, use sociological, linguistic, psychoanalytic, historical and other approaches to broaden the examination of African literatures, at least some Western feminist critics are also move to incorporate a heightened awareness of their own positions with regards to the authors and literatures they discuss.Methodology This bibliography is, in every sense of the word, selective. African authors were included if an article (in English or French) could be located which discussed him or her from the angle of feminism, womanism, or the treatment of gender. Authors were not excluded or included on any other basis, including race and gender. Interviews were included for many of the female writers because such interviews often are a main source of feminist thought (their own) on their works.The sources I used to find these articles were the bibliographies of African literature located in the journal Callaloo (1987-89 and 1990-93), the MLA Bibliography, the African studies bibliographies for the years 1995-96, the CD-Rom resource Womens Resources International, 1972-August 1996, as well as various library catalogs for monographs, whether collections or single-authored. In addit ion, I scanned the bibliographies of articles and books to find other germane(predicate) citations.thither are several good bibliographies which focus, at least in part, on feminist criticism of African literatures from the 1970s through the mid 1980s. Brenda Berrians Bibliography of African Women Writers and Journalists, Carole Boyce Davies â€Å"A Bibliography of Criticism and Related Works” in Ngambika, and Barbara Fisters bibliography on criticism in Third World Womens Literature in combination cover this earlier arrest very thoroughly.I did not use these bibliographies to compile this one; to avoid excess duplication, I have focused on criticism published from 1980 on and simply cite these earlier bibliographies at the end of this one, although I am sure some duplication has occurred. This bibliography is make by authors and also includes a section on general works, which is organized first by those which cover African literatures without focusing on a specialized co untry, percentage or author, then by region, and then individual countries.Works of criticism are placed in this section if they refer to several authors/works from the continent, a particular region, or country. If an article focuses on four or fewer authors, it is included under the name of each author. The bibliography includes articles on eighty-seven individual authors, as well as general articles on Africa, atomic number 99 Africa, North Africa, West Africa, Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, Somali, South Africa, and Zimbabwe; it cites more than four hundred articles and monographs.It is interesting to compare the authors found in this bibliography with the ninety-five authors found in the biography section of Hans Zells A New Readers Guide to African Fiction (1st ed. , 1971; 2nd rev. ed. ,1983). The authors in Zells work are often considered the early canon of African literatures. Only twenty-five authors appear in both the current bibliography and Hans Zells Guide. There may be several reasons for this difference. Many of the authors included in my bibliography were not then considered a part of the canon of African literature; and a few had not even published at the time Zells work appeared.Carole Boyce Davies also offers an insight which may explain the lack of overlap. She notes in her introduction to Ngambika that one of the priorities of African feminist literary criticism is â€Å"the development of a canon of African women writers and a parallel canon of critical works with the final aim of expanding the African literary canon” (14). The Guides were compiled in the early years of this expansion, and it is quite possible that today the lists would be more reflective of each other.At the same time, many African women writers actively rebuke attempts to place African men on the defensive, arguing that a critical approach to literature (as well as other social, political, and heathen expressions) must explore the strengths of both A frican women and African men. While feminist criticism does focus on male authors, it more often strives to bring to the foreland of literary discussions the works of female African authors and the strong, individualist portrayals of women they offer.Future Search Hints The issues discussed above make feminist criticism of African fiction an exciting and dynamic field. They also make it a very complex field to research. There are several issues to keep in header when beginning research in this area. One of the most difficult to overcome is the lack of reportage of this area in mainstream indexing sources, such as the MLA, especially when one looks for early works, which were often carried in journals not then indexed by the MLA.Other sources which do cover these journals, such as the excellent bibliographies periodically offered by Callaloo on studies of African literature, do not offer separate sections for feminist criticism, and it is necessary to assess which ones are relevant by the titles or, at times, the authors, of the articles. For my own part it should be noted that it is entirely possible that I have missed articles which should appear in this bibliography.Many of the scoop sources are only available in print, such as International African Bibliography, Current Bibliography of African Affairs, and Cahiers detudes africaines, which are more time-consuming to search, but well worth the effort. As the discussion above indicates, the term â€Å"feminism” can be extremely constricting when it is being used as a word form in either online or print indexes. For this reason, it is prudent to keep other terms in mind when searching for articles, whether in print or electronic resources, such as the keywords/descriptors â€Å"Gender” and â€Å"Womanism/Womanist”.It is important, as well, not to limit searches to the term â€Å"African. ” While some articles are indexed with this descriptor, those articles which deal with a s pecific author may be listed under that authors country instead, as of course are those which deal with the literatures of a specific region or country. Finally, especially when searching for articles in online indexes, it is utile to keep in mind specific topics, such as â€Å"sexuality,” â€Å"motherhood,” and â€Å"politics” combined with â€Å"women” or â€Å"female. â€Å"\r\n'

'“A Peace to end All Peace”: The Treaty of Versailles Essay\r'

'Recently, historian David Fromkin wrote a book just about the pact of Versailles, arguing that it was ‘A tranquility to displace All Peace,’ hence its title. This is so all the Treaty really offered was only an amicable, short- marches, settlement between the competitive powers that placed Germany in a disadvantageous position. Eventually, this resulted to a sentiment of retri scarcelyion among the Germans, which backed the rise of Hitler and the parachuting of a nonher World state of war. How was the Treaty of Versailles flawed? below ar several aspects for discussion.\r\n First are the legions aspects of the accordance. â€Å"Germany’s army was reduced to 100,000 men; the army was non allowed tanks. She was not allowed an air force. She was allowed only 6 capital naval ships” (Trueman, n.d.). However, this happened â€Å"only in publisher” a Germany â€Å"side-stepped” the rule and sign oned her soldiers only for a short perplex of service (ibid.). Once the contract is d nonpareil, she put the soldiers in reserve, success fullyy carrying out the confines of having no more than 100,000 soldiers at any one time, while yet having a substantial metre of reserve troops that helped Hitler rise later (ibid.). Also, although Germany was not allowed an air force, she trained potential pilots, as healthy as submariners, abroad (ibid.). This did not break the pact as there were no provisions regarding it in the first place.\r\n Second are the financial and territorial reserve aspects of the treaty. Germany was demanded to cede all of its colonies, to pay financial penalties joined to war destruction, and to not unite with Austria all at the same time (Trueman, n.d.). The Treaty also â€Å"provided for the livery of capital goods and raw materials to the Allies” (Sage, 2006). To the Germans, these terms offered them consummate(a) economic restrictions with possibly no chance of rehabilitation. Nonetheless, â€Å"Germany was still the strongest power in Europe economically, so that the unwise thing about Versailles was that it annoyed the Germans yet did not render them too weak to retaliate” (Lowe, 1982).\r\n trio and most importantly are the political aspects of the treaty. Germany was not even included, much more consulted, in its drafting. She was left-hand(a) all alone, with even the membership to the League of Nations outlaw against her. Most importantly, she was even made to admit â€Å"full responsibility for first the war” †a term explicitly written in Clause 231 of the treaty, the War Guilt Clause (Trueman, n.d.). With her admitting full responsibility, she had to pay for reparations, which are well beyond her ability to pay. The Allies literally pushed Germany to the ground when they made her sign a dummy cheque for the reparations, â€Å"which the Allies would cash when it suited them” (ibid.).\r\n again and again , Germany’s opinion was never asked nor even perceive of while the treaty was drafted until it was carried out. The most the Allies did was to impel her that she will be consulted after the Armistice in November 1918 (ibid.). The Germans did not like the treaty forced on them. precisely as the war had rendered them incapable of starting another war, they had no choice but to sign it, lest they be invaded by the Allies. At the end, Germany was the victim. The supposed victims, i.e. the Allies, emerged as victors as the terms of the Treaty worked greatly to their advantage, going away Germany bruised and battered more than ever.\r\nHowever, some scholars would argue that the treaty was not that bad after all. For instance, Jaron Sandy (1999) believed that it was the â€Å" lift out compromise possible,” though it â€Å"was certainly not the trump out one could hope for.” He agrees that it was â€Å"comprehensively harsh” on Germany, but it did not fail as a solution for peace, because there was a â€Å" extent of relative stability” in Europe from 1924 to 1931. But considering the discussions above, the Treaty of Versailles was proven to be a â€Å"Peace to end all Peace.” Some scholars would even verify it â€Å"was no peace treaty” at all, but just â€Å"an indictment of Germany” (Sage, 2006). All it left was â€Å"a mood of anger throughout Germany as it was tangle that as a nation Germany had been unfairly tempered”(Trueman, n.d.).\r\nREFERENCES:\r\nLowe, N. (1982). Mastering Modern World History (excerpt). Retrieved July 14, 2008 from http://www.johndclare.net/peace_treaties1_Answer.htm\r\nSage, HJ. (2006). Versailles 1919. Retrieved July 14, 2008 from http://www.sagehistory.net/worldwar1/topics/versailles.htm\r\nSandy, J. (1999). in the flesh(predicate) Conclusions about the Treaty of Versailles and Its Effects (excerpt). Retrieved July 14, 2008 from http://www.johndclare.net/peace_trea ties1_Answer.htm\r\nTrueman, C. (n.d.). The Treaty of Versailles. Retrieved July 14, 2008 from: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/treaty_of_versailles.htm\r\n'

'Impact of Selfishness on Personal Life Essay\r'

'Every day, pile derive several decisions that more or less influence their live. However, it is necessary to consider other(a) people and results on ward the decisions were made, since egotistical decisions faecal matter cause lots of problems. The selfish choices that selected by the main characters in both â€Å"On the rainy River” and â€Å"A Pair of Silk Stocking” cause atone and fig out conflict between the main characters and themselves . ruefulness can be ca employ by selfish decisions.\r\nOn the one hand, O’Brien, the narrator of the â€Å"On the Rainy River” entangle guilty and worried about his families during the authority to Canada because he fled onward from the war: â€Å"I would go to the warâ€I would polish and maybe take place â€because I was embarrassed not to. That was the sad subject” (O’Brien 12). Clearly, O’Brien explained why he decided to go to Canada and continued his life without contrad icting his own beliefs. Here he lost his chance at having personal felicity and would have to live with rue from then on.\r\n even off though, O’Brien went plump for and join the army in the end, he still could not get away from the guilt that rose by his decisions: â€Å"I survived, and it’s not a happy ending. I was a coward. I went to the war” (O’Brien 14). Unlike or so people, O’Brien did not regarded surviving form the war as a fortunate thing for him, instead, O’Brien considered himself as a coward and did not forgive himself for reservation the inappropriate decision from now on. On the other hand, Mrs.\r\nSommer, the major character of â€Å"A Pair of Silk Stockings” to a fault felt guilty about her family, for the mother used up alone the fifteen pounds to purchase accessories and entertain herself instead of buying â€Å"so and so many yards of percales for new shirt waists for the boys and Janie and Mag”(Chop in 1). The fifteen pounds were hypothetic to spend on the clothing of their children according to Mrs. Sommers’s plan at beginning, but she spent all for herself.\r\nBy the end of day, she did not want to go home: â€Å"in truth he truism notingâ€unless he were wizard enough to detect a poignant wish, a the right way longing that the personal line of credit car would neer bide anywhere, but go on evermore” (Chopin 3). Mrs. Sommers’s thought reflected her regret since she wished the cable can run forever, so that she did not need to go back home and brass her families. Obviously, personal happiness cannot be achieved by selfishness, doing this can create nothing but regret that pass on follow a person through their life. Furthermore, the selfishness gives raise to conflict between people and themselves.\r\nIn â€Å"On the Rainy River”, on the one side, O’Brien felt he was â€Å" alike good for the war. Too smart, too compassionate, too e verything” (O’Brien 3) since the war is all in all unreasonable for him. He did not want to be killed or kill anyone else. On the other side, he found himself is completely irresponsible for both his family and country, for the simple reason that he neither supported his country nor protected his family during the just about dangerous time. Due to his strong sense of devotion and the honourable values like bolstering his own country, O’Brien struggled with two conflicting forces in himself.\r\nSimilarly, Mrs. Sommers struggled against herself to repress the urges and lure of the luxury items. At first, she planned to spend the currency on her children. However, as soon as she entered the section store, she had a powerful desire for a turn of luxury. She tried to hide the desire because of her economic situations. last â€Å"she went on thumbing the soft, sheeny luxurious thingsâ€with both hands now, holding them up to see them glisten, and feel them g lide serpent-like through her fingers.\r\nTwo hectic blotches came absolutely into her pale cheeks” (Chopin 2) and undoubtedly she succumbed to her desires. By the end of the piddling story, Mrs. Sommers was extraordinarily desperate for the luxurious life to never end â€Å"a poignant wish, a powerful longing that the cable car would never stop anywhere, but go on and on with her forever” (Chopin 3). The cable in some way symbolized her fancy life since at that time only moneyed people were able to afford cable. Her wish be she still wanted to enjoy the feeling of that false luxurious life and was unwilling to return back to reality.\r\nUltimately , being selfish leads to the conflicts between people and themselves and annoyance in their life. Overall, the two short stories viz. â€Å"On the Rainy River” and â€Å"A Pair of Silk Stockings” emphasized the negative impact of selfishness on human life. some(prenominal) O’Brien and Mrs. Sommer suffered the regret and conflicting forces that rose by their selfishness. Therefore it is necessary to consider the result onward making a decision since selfish decisions, in long term, cannot bring any happiness and self-satisfactory.\r\n'

'Strict Liability in Business Law\r'

'The Ameri bear usual natural jurisprudence adopted the concept of rigid obligation in early 1960’s. They began to adopt the view that the sellers should back up the cost of injuries or shifts in their crossways as they be in the best position to distinguish the risks associated with their crossings. The moves of advanced sentences also provide the sellers the indisputable financial obligation for their big harvest-festivals with bulge out the disregard or fault on the lot of the seller. The Ameri git law institutes call for the assorted state law departments to recapitulate the developments in tight financial obligation in Section 402A of the Restatement (Second) of torts in 1977.In 1997 ALI bumonical the Restatement (Third) of Torts point of intersectionions financial obligation, which expands the general language of Section 402A into all over 20 different sections addressing circumstantial actions of the unforgiving indebtedness establish for r ecovery. In 1999, the ALI ap experimentd Restatement the apportionment of obligation, completely win and expanding upon comparable provisions of Restatement (Second) of Torts. This Restatement gives paramount importance to the designulas of law governing apportionment as liability in encases whither on that point ar multiple actors who whitethorn wangle up differing degrees of liability.(1)The application of unforgiving liability is important in various segments of barter law. hither we shall discuss the mise en scene of unforgiving liability, its subjectives and exceptions etc. muchover we shall try to look the relationship and contrast of the uncompromising liability with almost a nonher(prenominal) dimensions in the business law like come up in Rylands Vs Fletcher, mens rea, oversight, harvest-festival liability and contract. ——————————————————R 12;————————————————— 1. Restatement (Third) of Torts products liability, 1999 unyielding obligation 2 Introductionâ€Å"He elicit apologia himself by video displaye that the fountain was owing to complainant’s default; but as nada of this sort exists here, it si unnecessary to require to what self-justification would be decent. †Blackburn J Sec. 402A of Restatement (Second) of Torts, 1977 enunciates that seller of some(prenominal) regretful product which is unreasonably suicidal to the drug riding habitr or consumer is subject to liability for physical victimize in that respectby wooing to the ultimate determinationr or consumer, or to his place, if the product is expected to and does r to each one the user or consumer without squ ar(a) change in the condition in which it is sold.It does non matter that the seller has exercised all possible do le out in the preparation and sale of his product; and the user or consumer has non bought the product from or entered into any contractual relation with the seller. still the recreate up below discover of nonindulgent liability can be turn over a gather inst Property disparage, Compensation for wrongful death, tangible and mental pain and suffering Loss of puddle for loss of love and affection, Past, present and future medical examination bills and Lost past and future wages, Definition uncompromising liability is a legal doctrine that makes virtually persons responsible for alter their actions or products ca-ca, regardless of any â€Å"fault” on their part. at that place argon situations when a person whitethorn liable for slightly disablement stock- allay so though he is not hit-and-run(prenominal) in cause the same or there is no innovation to cause the harm or some eras he whitethorn even shake up made some positive efforts to avert the same. I n other haggling the law recognizes such(prenominal) type tight indebtedness 3 of â€Å"no fault â€Å"liability. (Salmond,1996)(2)The liability arises when a person or company sells a unsound product which is un sound and precarious to the user.The crack may in the products design or manufacturing, in the book of instructions or model necessary for the product’s asylum or in the container or packaging. The master(prenominal) feature of this aspect is, here the injure is excluded from proving the disrespect of seller. Scope Generally our legal system typically imposes liability for m unmatchabley regaining only upon a showing that a person was negligent (i. e. , failed to use due(p) manage) or somehow mean to let about an blot or toll to another. thither are cases, however, where a defaulter can be held responsible for an blot even where no failure or evil intent can be sh sustain .The doctrine of strict liability imposes legal responsibleness for injur ies sustained by or as a terminus of an actors lead, whether or not the actor utilise sensitive aid and regardless of the actors state of mind. austere liability cases are limited to certain(a) narrowly-defined areas of the law, including products liability, ultra speculative activities, fretfulness of animals and certain statutory offenses. ( Faegre & Benson, 2003) (3) The figure of strict liability is mainly attributed to find oneself in Rylands Vs Fletcher (4) in which the House of Lords well reared the precept of as strict liability.In this case, the ———————————————————————————————————— 2. Salmond , Heuston (1996) , Law of Torts, , publisher: Sweet & maxwell; 21Rev Ed edition , ISBN-13: 978-0421533509 3. Faegre & Benson, (Nov. 2003) UK Trade an d Investment, US product liability law 4. Rylands Vs Fletcher (1868) L. R 3 H. L 330 Strict obligation 4 suspect got a reservoir constructed by means of individual contractors, over his land for providing pissing to his mill.There were old disused shafts chthonian(a) the site of the reservoir, which the contractors failed to observe and so did not clog them. When the water was filled in the reservoir, it burst destroyed the shafts and the complainant’s cold mines on the next land. The suspects did not know the shafts and had not been negligent although the independent contractors had been. In this case the address found that even if the suspect was not negligent or rather, even if the suspect did not headingally cause the harm or he was criminal maintenanceful, he could still be made liable downstairs the rule.The defendant may excuse himself by showing that the occurrence was owing to the plaintiff’s default or that was the sequel of vis major or the act of good. But in this case the address firmly conserves that it is unnecessary to inquire what excuse would be sufficient. Normally in these cases, the liability arises not because there was ant fault or negligence on the part of persons, but because he kept such incorrect products and the same was caused some sort of personal damage to another. In Smedleys Vs Breed, (5)a banging manufacturing company of tinned peas was convicted as there found the carcass of a caterpillar.On dismissing the appeal of company the coquet held it was offence of strict liability, therefore it was not sufficient show that the company had grapplen all reasonable care to avoid the event. ———————————————————————————————————— 5. Smedleys Vs Breed,(1974) Strict Liability 5 The same view w as suckn in the far-famed case Donogue Vs Stevenson (6) in this case A purchased a bottle of ginger beer from a retailer for the appellant.While pour to the tumbler the appellant found a decomposed dead body of a snail floated out with her ginger beer. The appellant alleged that she seriously suffered in her health in consequence of having drunk the beer which contains the contaminated contents. On her claim for restitution, the court declared that a person who is for gain engages in the business of manufacturing articles of food and drink intend for consumption by members of the public in the bod he is fulfills them, is on a lower floor a debt instrument to take care in the manufacture of these articles.That handicraft moldiness be to whom he intends to consume his products. The fact is that he manufacturers his commodities for humanity consumption. Due to this informal nexus he places himself in a relationship with all the capability consumers of his commodities, and th at relationship which he assumes and desires for his own ends impose upon him a duty to take care to avoid injuring them. ” thereof the manufacturer owed her a duty to take care that the bottle did not contain any injurious matter and that he would be liable for the collapse of the duty.Moreover the law looks into the scope of strict liability epoch it is arising out of indeed consumer’s case. In Berrier v. informality Manufacturing, Inc (7), the leg of four years old was amputated as the result of injuries sustained when her grand father accidentally backed over her foot while shear the lawn with ———————————————————————————————————— 6. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 (HL) (Sc) 7. Berrier v. Simplicity Manufacturing, Inc. , (3d Cir. Jan. 17, 2008) S trict Liability 6 a riding mower.Her parents moved a case against the manufacturer of the riding mower on the basis of strict liability and negligence base on design shift and inadequate warning theories. But the court followed the decision of Phillips v. Cricket Lighters, (8)and held that since the intend user or consumer is limiting the wide application of rule of strict liability the issue still remains that the child is neither user nor intended user or consumer of the mower. Strict liability and mens rea So the offences of strict liability, we can say, are those crimes which do not require mens rea with regard to at least one or more elements of the actus reus.In R Vs Storkwain (9) the defendant supplied drugs for which a prescription was postulate, after being handed a forged prescription. There was no evidence of any negligence or wrong doing on the part of the pharmacist.. On appeal against conviction, it was held that the formula created an offence of strict liability; therefore no proof of mens rea was required. In Gammon (Hong Kong) Ltd vs Attorney-General for Hong Kong (10) following points has been laid down to check out the circumstances to which strict liability to be imposed.(1) There is a presumption of law that mens rea is required originally a person can be held discredited of a criminal offence; ———————————————————————————————————— 8. Phillips v. Cricket Lighters, 841 A. 2d 1000 (Pa. 2003) 9. R Vs Storkwain (1986) 10. Gammon (Hong Kong) Ltd v Attorney-General for Hong Kong [1984] 2 All ER 503 Strict Liability 7 (2) The presumption is particularly strong where the offence is â€Å" authentically criminal” in character;(3) The presumption applies to statutory offences, and can be displaced only if this is distinctly or by necessary implication the effect of the statute; (4) The only situation in which the presumption can be displaced is where the statute is pertain with an issue of neighborly concern; (5) Even where a statute is concerned with such an issue, the presumption of mens rea stands unless it can be shown that the earthly concern of strict liability volition be hard-hitting to promote the objects of the statute by encouraging greater vigilance to prevent the commission of the prohibited act.Essentials of strict liability For the application of this rule the following tether essentials should be there: 1) Injury by a risky product: In order to advance the strict liability under the law the plaintiff mustiness show that the injury must be caused by a defective product whose defect existed at the time of injury and the product should be plaintiff’s maneuver. In the recent case of Ceiba-Geigy (Pty) Ltd v Lushof Farms (Pty) Ltd en ‘n Ander (11) it was held that the liability arising from the defective products not only link up to the personal injury but financial loss also.It was further substantiate that when a manufacture undertakes or market the return without any prior tests and ———————————————————————————————- 11. Ceiba-Geigy (Pty) Ltd v Lushof Farms (Pty) Ltd en ‘n Ander, 2002 (2) SA 447 (SCA) Strict Liability 8 consequently it turns hazardous to the consumer such negligent activities expose a liability to the consumer. here a contractual nexus in the midst of the manufacturer and the consumer is not required. (Weir, Tony 2006), (12)2) The goods must be serious or defective in nature: Here the plaintiff must show that due to the dangerous nature, such goods can not be used for the ordinary purpose or for some other reasonably foreseeable purpo se. Thus, a manufacturer owes a duty to supply a product flare-up for the ordinary purposes and it is to be used and safe tho a reasonably foreseeable contumely that could cause injury. The decisions in notable cases like Batcheller Vs Tunbrige Wells burn out co. ,(13) National Telephone Co. Vs Baker (14)and western United States Vs Bristol Tramways Co.(15)manifests that the defective products are whatever in form ,whether it is gas, galvanisingal energy noxious fumes ,the rule of strict liability can be use. 3) The goods should cater the manufacturer: It is essential that the thing caused injury to the plaintiff must leave from the possession and control of eth defendant. So those defective goods are still with the manufacture is safe from the claim of compensation. In Read Vs Lyons (16) (text) the plaintiff was the employee in the defendant’s munitions factory. While performing her duty a re star(predicate)nd was exploded and she was injured . Even——&# 8212;————————————————————————————————†12. Weir,Tony,( 2006),an introduction to Tort law,2nd edn. , Oxford University Press 13. Batcheller Vs Tunbrige Wells Gas co. 84 L. T 765 14. National Telephone Co. Vs Baker (1893) 2 ch 186 15. West Vs Bristol Tramways Co. (1908) 2 K. B 14 16. Read Vs Lyons (1947) A. C 156, 161 Strict Liability 9 though the example exploded was dangerous in nature it was held that defendants were not liable as the shell was not left from outside the defendant’s premises and the rule of strict liability could not be applied in this case.4) Breach of warranty: Generally, the law imposes certain warranties (or guaranties) on the sale of products. Such warranties include that the goods are in proper condition for use and acquit of defects and that they are fit fo r a particular purpose. Since the court doesn’t disregard the liability of the waivers against the policy and the warranties are limited, the manufacturers and retailers are continuously held responsible for injuries from the defective and dangerous products. The aspect of breakout of warrenty enables the plaintiff to act against the defendant with his complete freedom.Here he need not assert that the defendant is fault. Usually the product claims under the breach of warranty are in quasi contractual nature. Any factual statement or annunciate about the product ,a description of the product made ,any sample or model provided constitutes the warranty upon which the vendee rely to purchase the goods. ( Faegre & Benson,. 2003)(17) Exceptions/limitations The following are the exceptions to the rule of strict liability. 1) Plaintiff’s own default: Damage caused due to the plaintiff’s own default was considered to be good confession in rule of strict liabili ty.If the plaintiff suffers damages by ———————————————————————————————————— 17. ibid 3 Strict Liability 10 his own intrusion into the defendant’s position he can not complain for the damage so caused. When the damage to the plaintiff’s products/property is caused not so much by the escape of eth thing s collected by the defendants as by the unusual sensitiveness of plaintiff’s property itself, the plaintiff cannot recover anything. In east and South African wire C. Ltd. Vs Capetown Tramways Co.(18) the plaintiff gun cable transmissions were disturbed by escape of electric car current from the defendant’s tramways . It was found that the damage was due to the unusual sensitiveness of the plaintiff’s apparatus and such damage entrus t not occur to person carrying on the ordinary business and the defendant held not liable for the such occurrence. 2) be of god: Act of god or Vis study was also considered to be a good self-abnegation to an action under the rule of strict liability. If the defect is unforeseen and it is without any human intervention the defence mechanism of cat of good can be pleaded.In Tennent Vs Earl of Glasgow (19) the court has framed a well maintained explanation for the act of god as the circumstances which no human foresight can provide against and of which human prudence is not bound to recognize the opening move. 3) acquiesce of plaintiff: In cases of volunti non fit injuria i. e where the plaintiff has consented to the accumulation of the dangerous /defective product in defendant’s possession, then such liability does not arise. But such consent must arise for the leafy vegetable ————————————— 212;—————————————————————— 18.Eastern and South African Telegraph C. Ltd Vs Capetown Tramways Co. (1936) A. C 381 19. Tennent Vs Earl of Glasgow (1864) 2M (H. L) 22, 26-27 Strict Liability 11 value of both plaintiff and defendant. For eg: when two persons are nutrition on the different floors of eth same building each of them is deemed to energise consented to the installation of things of common hit such as the water system, gas pipes or electric wiring . When water has been collected for the common benefit of the plaintiff and the defendant will not be liable for any defects happened to such system unless there is negligence on his part.In nitrogen Western Utilities Vs capital of the United Kingdom Guarantee,etc Co. Ltd (20) ,the concept of consent for the common benefit had been suppose as there is no such common benefit between a gas or other public utility undertaking and its consumer’s . 4) Act of third party: If the harm has been caused due to the act of a weird who is neither defendant’s servant nor the defendant has any control over him, the defendant will not be liable under this rule. But if the act of the stranger is or can be foreseen by the defendant and the damage can be prevented, the defendant must by due care prevent the damage.If not so, the defendant may be held liable for his act. This principle is laid down in Richards Vs Lothian (21). In this case, some strangers blocked the waste pipes of a wash basin, which was differently in the control of the defendants, when opened the tap, and the overflowing water damaged the plaintiff’s goods. The defendants were held not liable. 5) statutory authority: Generally an act done under the authority of a statute is defense ————————————————— 212;—————————————————— 20. North Western Utilities Vs London Guarantee,etc Co. Ltd (1936) A.C 108 21. Richards Vs Lothian (1913) A. C 263 Strict Liability 12 to an action for tort. But it cannot be pleaded as a defense when there is negligence. In light-green Vs Chelsea Waterworks Co. (22) the defendant co. had a statutory duty to maintain continuous supply of water. A man belonging to the company burst without any negligence on its part, as a consequence of which plaintiff’s premises were flooded with water. It was held that the company was not liable as the company was engaged in performing a statutory duty. ( Salmond,1996)(23) In practice, the defendant may argue the defenses adopting the following claims.1) The defendant may forward an argument on the basis of use of the product sold. But it is to be remembered that the misuse of products can not be forceeble or t here is a chance of rebut this argument by the plaintiff that there should have some kind of antepast on the part of the manufacturer and prevented such misuse by its product design or in its warning. 2)Secondly the defendant can claim that the product has been adapted and modified . In order to be this he has to take adequate measures to provide warnings in radio link with the alteration of the products.3) If there is any complaint by the buyer about the defective design, then the defendant may rebut his claim by demonstrating that the product was at state of art at the time of manufacture. 4) A manufacturer might be allowed to adduce the evidence on the basis of industry ———————————————————————————————————- 22. commonalty Vs Chelsea Waterworks Co. (1864) 70 L. T 547 23. ibid 2 Strict Liability 13 custom and standards and government standards related to the manufacture and design. ( Faegre & Benson, 2003)(24)Before the buyers of tacky products were not allowed to sue a manufacturer of or seller of a harmful product in commerce. The decision owes to the principle of â€Å"caveat emptor” â€Å"let the Buyer beware”. Now the burthen to prove a products sticks on the other claims of product defect, inadequate instructions, or warnings. Here the plaintiff must prove that that the product caused him harm when it was used for its intended purpose as well. More he has to prove that the manufacturer knew or should have known the product would be used in such a way that would cause harm. Strict liability and NegligenceNegligence is an important element to determine the strict liability of a defendant. Negligence is considered to be the oldest hypothesis of product liability as well as the strict liability. As a general rule it is for the plaintiff to prove that the defendant was negligent. The initial burden of making out at least prima facie case of negligence as against the defendant lies heavily on the plaintiff, but once this onus is discharged, it will be for the defendant to prove that the incident was the result of inevitable accident or contributory negligence on the part of the plaintiff.(Jones,2007)(25) There are some elements should be proved by the plaintiff in order to make claim against the defendants under the rule of strict liability. ———————————————————————————————————— 24. ibid 3 25. Jones, A . Micheal (2007), A text book on Tort, Ch. 2, 9th ed. , publ. by Oxford University Press Strict Liability 14 Duty of care: The plaintiff must prove that a duty of care was owed by the defendant to the plaintiff. Mere carelessness on the part of defendant doesn’t entitle the plaintiff to sue him.He has to establish that the defendant owed to him a specific legal duty to take care of which he has made a breach. In this connection, in famous case of Donogue Vs Stevenson it was held that a manufacturer of the products which he sells in such a form as to show that he intends them to reach the ultimate consumer in the form in which they left him with no reasonable possibility of intermediate examination and with the knowledge that the absence of reasonable care in the preparation of putting up of the products will result in an injury to consumer’s life or property, owes a duty to the consumer to take that reasonable care.(26) Breach of duty: Breach of duty means non observance of due care which is required in a particular situation. But here the defendant acted like a reasonable responsible man there is no negligence. In Blyth Vs Birmingham waterworks Co(27). it was clearly explained that negligence is the omission to do something which a reasonable man ,guided upon those considerations which ordinarily regulate the conduct of human affairs, would do or doing something which a prudential and reasonable man would not do.) Proximate cause: The plaintiff should prove that the breach of duty proximately caused the plaintiff’s injuries. Finally there should be rightful(a) and sufficient injury happened to the plaintiff due to the defective /dangerous product. ———————————————————————————————————— 26. ibid 6 27. Blyth Vs Birmingham waterworks Co (1856) 11Ex. 281Strict Liability15 The manufacturers always have the duty to exercise reasonable care in manufacturing the products.Poor assembling the products, difference in use of comp onent parts and its design specifications, failure to examine the finished products, component parts and failure in correction in any defective products are some examples to lead the plaintiff to claim under the rule of strict liability. ( Faegre & Benson, 2003) (28) In R Vs lowlife (29)the publisher of a gay intelligence information were charged with blasphemous libel against Christ through a poem which was considered as an slur to Christianity.The court held that it is the pure case of blaspheme as they had intention to publish so they are responsible for their act. Moreover in Alpha cell Vs Woodward,(30) the company was incriminate of causing polluted water to enter river by using equipment to prevent any overflow in to the river. But due to the collapse of the machine, the polluted things leaked out to the water. There was no evidence that the defendant is negligent but the court held that the defendant had caused the pollution in the water and they held liable. Strict l iability in product liabilityThe â€Å"product liability” defined as the liability of manufacturer, during the chain of distribution, for personal injury, economic loss or property damage caused by sale or use of the product. Here the term ‘product’ denotes the finished goods as well as those items which may have some impact on the consumer expectations, product safety etc. In order to brought the action under strict liability the plaintiff must prove that injury occurred by ———————————————————————————————————— 28. ibid 3, 24 29. R Vs Lemon (1979)30. Alphacell Vs Woodward, (1972) Strict Liability16 a defective product whose defect existed at the time of injury and at the time which the product left the control of manufactures control. Such product lia bility is the legal responsibility of the manufacturer to the buyers. It can be occurred at time of the transaction. Generally there are three defects in the product make defendants liable for their act. 1) Manufacturing: even though a few products turns in to the fault during the process of a manufacturing the plaintiff may held liable under rule of strict liability.2) Marketing: In the case of lack of product warning or instructions, the plaintiff can bring an action against the defendant under such liability. 3) project: A fault in design from antecedently mentioned might enable the plaintiff to claim for damages against the defendants. ( Miller, Goldberg 2004)(31) Usually the defective and unreasonably dangerous product denotes the desirability or usefulness of the product, the availability of safer goods in same need, likelihood of injury and its possible sincerity and danger.In such cases entitles the plaintiff to recover from the defendants for the injury caused by the prod uct. Here he need not prove any misconduct on the part of the defendant. The law framed such a provision to make the manufacturer vigilant about their production in safe manner. It is the duty of the manufacturer to produce the goods which will not create an unreasonable risk of injury to the consumer at any cost. Such claim can be made against the———————————————————————————————————— 31. Miller C. J, Goldberg R. S (September 30, 2004) harvest-time liability 2 edition Publisher: Oxford University Press, regular army; ISBN-13: 978-0198256786 Strict Liability17 manufacturer, wholesaler, distributor, retailer and the maker of component parts. (Restatemet,1999)(32) In recent case of Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. ,(33) 24 Cal. 2d 453 (1944) (Traynor, J., concurring) it wa s clearly stated that on the demand of public policy the responsibility should be fixed even though there is no element of negligence under the circumstances of hazardous and dangerous to life and health due to the defective products. In cost of the cases the injured would be such persons who are not sensible and unprepared to meet the consequences. It is to the public interest to warn the marketing of defective products that are a scupper to the public. It is to the public interest to place the responsibility for whatever injury they may cause upon the manufacturer, who, even if he is not negligent in the man\r\n'